Chapter 4 Syllabus

4.1 Light reaction

- Reaction and detailed description

- Photoactivation of photosystem I and photosystem II

- Photolysis of water

- Production and roles of NADPH and ATP

- Cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation

4.2 Dark reaction/Calvin cycle in C3* and C4* plants

- Reaction and detailed description

- CO2* fixation to RuBP

- Production of PGAL until the formation of carbohydrates

- Involvement in the formation of proteins and fatty acids

- Anatomical and physiological differences between leaves of C3* and C4* plants

- Krantz's anatomy

- Hatch-Slack pathway

- Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)

- Example: cactus

4.3 Factors limiting the rate of photosynthesis

- Wavelength and intensity of light, temperature and carbon dioxide concentration

- Compensation point

* numbers are subscripts

Chapter 4: Photosynthesis

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Wind and Water

1. They affects the dispersion of organism. They also affects the distribution of fruits, seeds and spores.

2. Wind increase evapotranspiration thereby decreasing moisture. Hence, windy habitats are usually inhabited by xerophytes.

3. Strong water currents causes erosion that would then determine the type of species that line the riverbanks.

4. Plankton and algae species are also found in small amounts in fast flowing waters. In the beaches, waves and beach sand prevent plants from inhabiting there.

Important Concepts of Ecology

1. Ecology: study of interactions between organisms and organisms with their environments

 

2. Biosphere (Ecosphere): all parts of planet Earth inhabited by living organisms. It stretches from the bottom of the ocean  to the upper atmosphere = all the communities and ecosystems in planet Earth

 

3. Biotic components: living components in the ecosystem, such as plants, animals, humans and microorganisms

 

4. Abiotic components: non-living components of the ecosystem such as water, soil, air, rocks, snow and others.

 

5. Environment: surrounding of an organism including all biotic and abiotic components. The environment of an  organism usually includes water, air, soil and living things.

 

6. Habitat: specific area(place) of the physical environment where an organism lives. Example: Forest as habitat of monkeys, Meadow as habitat of deers.

 

7. Microhabitat: particular place in the habitat where and organism lives. Microhabitat can be an area under a rock, for ants.

 

8. Community: all organisms living in the same habitat. Mangrove swamp community consists of mangrove trees, birds, crabs, monkeys, snakes, microorganisms...etc.

 

9. Biome: large community unit that extends over wide biogeographical area, determined by area. Hence, biome can be said as a climatically delineated assemblage of organisms that have a characteristic appearance and is distribute over a wide geographical area. This community is usually complex and its animals and plants have certain characteristics. Example: Terrestrial biome are tropical forest, Mediterranean forest, deciduous forests, savanna, tundra, desert and prairie. Ocean is a single biome.

 

10. Bion: independant individual organism living in any ecological system.

Roles of Hormones in Plant Growth and Development

Auxin

1. Phototropism

2. Cell Elongation

3. Apical Dominance

4. Parthenocarpy

5. Flowering

6. Delay Abscission

7. Activates Cambium

8. Growth of Lateral Roots

 

Giberellin

1. Break Seed Dormancy

2. Bolting

3. Dwarf to Normal

4. Growth of Lateral Roots

5.

 

Cytokinin

 

Abscisic Acid (ABA)

 

Ethene

Chapter 11: Hormones/Chemical Coordination

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Plants

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Chapter 11 Syllabus

11.1 Humans

11.1.1 Hormonal Action

- Mechanism of hormone action via gene activation; examples: steroid hormones

- Mechanism of non-steroid hormone via activation of cyclic AMP system (cascade effect); examples: adrenaline

- Comparison between the two action mechanisms

11.1.2 Role of hormones in reproduction

- Site of production and the role of hormones in oestrus cycle

- Site of production and role of hormone during pregnancy

11.2 Plants

- Role of hormones in plant growth and development

11.2.1 Auxin: Growth of organs

11.2.2 Giberellin: Root and shoot induction

11.2.3 Cytokinin

11.2.4 Abscisic Acid (ABA): Apical and bud dominance

11.2.5 Ethene: Seed dormancy, flowering, abscission, senescence, fruit ripening, stomatal mechanism, parthenocarpy

- Interaction betweeb hormones; examples: apical dominance

11.3 Phytochromes and the effect of light on flowering

- Definition of phytochrome

- Mechanism of phytochrome action

- Role of phytochromes in photoperiodism and flowering

Chapter 13: Reproduction

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Chapter 13 Syllabus

13.1 Sexual Reproduction

13.1.1 Plants

- Refer topic 22 (Biodiversity) for morphological characteristics

- Structure of sexual reproductive organ

- Life cycle with emphasis on sexual reproduction:

i) Algae: Spirogira

ii) Bryophyta: Marchantia

iii) Filicinophyta: Dryopteris

iv) Coniferophyta: Pinus

v) Angiospermophyta: Caesalpinia

13.1.2 Fungi: Mucor

- Refer to topic 22 (Biodiversity) for morphological characteristics

- Structure of sexual reproductive organ

- Life cycle with emphasis on sexual reproduction

13.1.3 Animals

- Refer topic 22 (Biodiversity) for morphological characteristics

- Diversity of sexual reproductive systems and overall comparison

- Mechanism of fertilization (internal and external)

- Oviparity, Ovoviviparity and Viviparity

i) Ciliophora: Paramecium

ii) Cnidaria: Hydra

iii) Annelida: Pheretima

iv) Arthropoda: Periplaneta

v) Amphibia: Rana

vi) Reptilia: Naja

vii) Aves: Columba

ix) Mammalia: Rattus

13.2 Asexual Reproduction

- Definition and examples only

13.2.1 Parthenogenesis

- Aphis and Apis

13.2.2 Paedogenesis

- Amphioxus

13.2.3 Polyembriony

- Fasciola

13.2.4 Sporulation

- Dryopteris and Plasmodium

13.2.5 Budding

- Hydra and Saccharomyces

13.2.6 Binary fission

- Amoeba

13.2.7 Regeneration

- Planaria

13.2.8 Vegetative

- Allium, Solanum, Yucca, Zingiber

Chapter 15: Growth

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Chapter 15 Syllabus

15.1 Measurement

- Parameters and methods of measurement (suitability and problems)

 

15.2 Types of growth curve

- Absolute growth curve

- Absolute growth rate curve

- Relative growth rate curve

 

15.3 Growth pattern

- Limited growth (human)

- Unlimited growth (perennial plants/woody plants)

- Allometric growth (human)

- Isometric growth (fish)

- Intermittent growth (insect)

 

15.4 Ecdysis and metamorphosis

- Definition

- Role of hormones (neurosecretion, juvenile hormone and ecdysone)

- Ecdysis and metamorphosis in insects

 

15.5 Dormancy

- Concept, importance and examples

 

15.5.1 Animals

- Hibernation, aestivation and diapause

 

15.5.2 Plants

- Seed dormancy

- Factors affecting seed dormancy and methods of overcoming them

Chapter 14: Development

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Chapter 14 Syllabus

14.1 Animals

14.1.1 Embryology

- Brief description of major stages

- Beginning after fertilisation from cleavage to organogenesis (blastula and gastrula)

- Organ formation from ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm

14.1.2 Human fetal development

- Roles of placenta, chorion, amniotic fluid and allantois

- Roles of progesterone and oestrogen

14.1.3 Parturition process in human

- Roles of progesterone, oestrogen, oxytocin and prolactin

14.2 Plants

14.2.1 Seed development

- Development of seeds and fruits after fertilization

- Structure of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous seeds

14.2.2 Seed germination

- Mobilisation of nutrients after imbibition (role of giberrelin)

Chapter 18: Population Genetics

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Chapter 18 Syllabus

18.1 Concept Of Gene Pool
- Concept of gene pool, allele and genotype frequencies in a population
- Relationship between population genetics and evolution

18.2 Hardy-Weinberg Law
- Genetic equilibrium and allele frequency
- Requirements for genetic equilibrium
-- Large-sized population
-- Random mating
-- No mutation
-- No migration
- Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
-- p^2 + 2 pq + q^2 = 1 and p + q = 1
- Calculations of allele and genotype frequencies in a population

Chapter 17: Mutation

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Chapter 17 Syllabus

17.1 Classification
- Spontaneous and induced
- Examples of mutagens

17.2 Gene Mutation
- Mutation at DNA level

17.2.1 Substitution
- Definition
- Example: sickle-cell anaemia

17.2.2 Insertion/Addition
- Definition
- Frameshift mutation


17.2.3 Deletion
- Definition
- Frameshift mutation
- Example: thalassaemia major

17.2.4 Inversion
- Definition

17.3 Chromosomal Mutation
- Chromosomal aberration

17.3.1 Change in chromosome number
- Aneuploidy and euploidy/polyploidy
- Definition of autosome and sex chromosome

i) Aneuploidy
- Definition
- Non-disjunction during meiosis
- Abnormalities of autosome number
-- Monosomy: resulting in sterility and retarded growth
-- Trisomy: Down's syndrome (trisomy 21)
- Abnormalities of sex chromosome number
-- Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY)
-- Turner syndrome (45, X)

ii) Euploidy/polyploidy
- Definition of euploidy/polyploidy, autopolyploidy and allopolyploidy
- Examples in plants

17.3.2 Change in chromosome structure
i) Inversion - Definition
ii) Translocation - Definition
iii) Deletion - Definition
iv) Duplication/Multiplication - Definition

Chapter 16: Transmisson Genetics

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Chapter 16 Syllabus

16.1 Mendelian Genetics
- Definition of the terms gamete, gene, allele, dominant and recessive alleles, homozygote, heterozygote, phenotype, genotype, filial generation (P1, P2, F1, F2), type of crosses (test cross, back cross, reciprocal cross, selfing) and pure cross
- Mendel's experiment on monohybrid and dihybrid crosses/inheritance
- Characteristics of pea plants used by Mendel

16.1.1 Monohybrid
- Monohybrid cross and its results
- Mendel's first law (Law of Seggregation) and its relation to meiosis
- Calculations of genotypic and phenotypic ratios (Punnett square and branch/fork method)

16.1.2 Dihybrid
- Dihybrid cross and its results
- Mendel's second law (law of Independant assortment) and its' relation to meiosis
- Calculations of genotypic and phenotypic ratios until F2 generation (Punnett square and branch/fork methods)

16.2 Modification of Mendelian Genetics
- Crosses that result in ratios differing from the classic Mendelian 3:1 and 9:3:3:1 ratios

16.2.1 Codominance
- Definition
- Examplke of inheritance: MN blood group in humans
- Calculations of genotypic and phenotypic ratios

16.2.2 Incomplete Doiminance
- Definition
- Example of inheritance : Antirrhinum (snapdragon) flower colour
- Calculations of genotypic and phenotypic ratios

16.2.3 Multiple Alleles
- Definition
- Example of inheritance: human ABO blood group
- Calcuylations of genotypic and phenotypic ratios

16.2.4 Lethal Genes
- Definition
- Example of inheritance: coat colour in mice
- Calculations of genotypic and phenotypic ratios

16.2.5 Polygenes
- Definition
- Example of inheritance: height in humans

16.2.6 Linked Genes
- Definition of linked genes and sex-linked genes
- Effect of crossing over on ratio of dihybrid crosses
- Parental and recombinant phenotypes
- Examples: Drosophila eye colour and haemophilia in humans
- Calculations of genotypic and phenotypic ratios
- Pedigree analysis
- Sex determination in humans

16.2.7 Epistasis
- Definition and examples only

16.3 Genetic Mapping
- Calculayions of distance between two loci based on percentage of cross-over
- Examples of calculations for Drosophila
-Determining the relative position of a gene on a chromosome based on percentage of cross-over

Phloem And Translocation (Under Construction)

Mass Flow/Pressure Flow Hypothesis (Münch model)

 
The diagram above shows the flow for a Münch model

*Please note that such drawing method is incorrect for reports, it is only for reference*

 

What happen in the model?

1. Due to concentration gradient, sugar solution will flow from Flask A towards Flask B.

2. This will increase turgor pressure/hydrostatics pressure in Flask B. 

3. Since the flask is closed, water is forced out of Flask B into the basin/beaker.

4. At the same time, water at the Flask A was forced into Flask A because of osmotic pressure in Flask A.

 

Application

1. In plants, the tube connecting the flasks will be phloem, while Flask A is the Leaf Part and Flask B is the Root Part.

2. And the tube connecting the beaker will be xylem.

3. The Leaf will have many nutrients(food/sugar) as the result of photosynthesis.

4. However, the concentration of sugar at the Root part will be lower but with water.

 

The Hypothesis

1.

Electro-osmosis




Cytoplasmic Streaming




Peristaltic Waves